I frequently assign individual or group papers to complement other class activities as part of the learning process. Consistent with the style  and format expectations of the overwhelming majority of undergraduate professors and almost unanimous requirement at the graduate and post-graduate level, I require those papers to be written using APA style. Yes, Mass Comm professionals do use Associated Press (AP) style to promote clear, concise writing and, therefore, understanding. This is different. This is APA (American Psychological Association) style.  It's valuable is providing consistency in academic writing. I am providing this APA Style Guide to assist you in that regard. --Prof. Weis

APA Writing Style: Fundamental Guidelines

Guidelines for Writing in APA Style.  APA style is the style of writing specified in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (4th ed., 1994). This electronic handout is meant to be used as a quick reference when writing papers and NOT as a substitute for buying the manual itself.

Remember that if you are writing a paper for any class, your professor's specific instructions (e.g., headings with letters added) take precedence over those of the Publication Manual (p. 334).

The page numbers given at the end of each checkpoint reference where to find information on the specific topic in the Publication Manual. Ironically, citing that way is not APA style.

Basic Format 1. Margins are to be 1" from top, bottom, and sides (except the manuscript page header; APA, 1994, pp. 240-241). 2.Double-spaced in all situations (p. 239). 3. Acceptable typeface is Courier or Times New Roman and in 12-point size (pp. 237-238). 4. Justification only on left side of paper. In other words, the right side of the paper should have ragged edges (p. 240). 5. Page numbers begin with title page (p. 241). 6. Paragraphs are to be indented five to seven spaces (p. 242). 7.Identify separate paragraphs in a series by Arabic numerals followed by a period (p 94).

Checkpoints for Manuscript

The manuscript page header at the top right of the page (1/2 inch down) is followed by five spaces and then the page number. This should contain the first two or three words of your title. The next line of your title page contains your running head for publication. Note that the running head is entirely capitalized and should be flushed left. The running head should be no more than 50 characters including punctuation and spaces. In the middle of your paper, type and center the following information: Full title of the paper (recommended title is 10 to 12 words), your name, and institution affiliation (APA, 1994, pp. 248-250).

The abstract page should follow the title page. It should start on a new page and be your page number two. Type the word Abstract centered on the first line of the page. The abstract should not be more than 960 characters long, including punctuation and spaces. It should be in block form and left justified, in other words, DO NOT indent paragraph. The abstract is a brief, comprehensive, and specific summary of your paper (APA, 1994, pp. 8-11, 250). Not all professors will require you to write an Abstract page. Prof Weis will never ask for this at the baccalaureate level.

The text of your paper will begin on either page two or three, depending on whether or not you are including an abstract. Begin by typing the title of your paper and centering it. The next line should be indented five to seven spaces and begin your text (APA, 1994, p. 251).

The reference page follows your text. Begin on a new page and type the word References and center it. If you only have one reference type Reference. If your references take up more than one page, DO NOT re-type the word references on sequential pages, simply continue your listings with the first line on the next page (APA, 1994, p.251).

Rules of APA

Use quotation marks to set off the title of an article or chapter in a periodical or book when the title is mentioned in text, to introduce a word or phrase considered slang, or as an invented or coined expression. An example would be the "high tolerance" variable (no quotation marks after the initial usage; APA, 1994, pp. 65-66).

Abbreviations should be used sparingly throughout your paper. Always spell out what the abbreviation means the first time it is used. An example would be Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). Thereafter, use the abbreviation. However, the following abbreviations do not have to be explained: IQ, REM, ESP, AIDS, HIV, NAPD, ACTH (APA, 1994, pp. 80-89).

Space once after colons, commas, semicolons, after periods that separate parts of a reference

citation, and after the periods of the initials of personal names (e.g., W. U. Borst). Do not space

after internal periods in abbreviations (e.g., a.m., i.e.; APA, 1994, pp. 239, 244).

Use the Arabic symbol with numbers 10 and above (12, 50, etc.) except if being compared with numbers 10 and below. For example, the 4th and 11th grades took a test. However, use the numerical symbol for all numbers in your Abstract page. Spell out the number when beginning a sentence and numbers below 10. To make plurals out of numbers add 's' only with no apostrophe the 1990s). Use combinations of written and Arabic numerals for back-to-back modifiers (six 2-point scales; APA, 1994, pp. 99-105).

Do not underline for mere emphasis. Underline for titles of books, introduction of new terms and labels (the first time only), statistical symbols (t test), and volume numbers in reference lists (APA,1994, pp. 80-82).

Headings

Headings indicate the organization of the manuscript and establish the importance of each topic. The Publication Manual (4th ed., 1994) covers the specifics from pp. 90-93. The level of headings numbers from a Level 1 heading to a Level 5. Do not label headings with numbers or letters (unless instructions differ from professors).

The following are examples of how they are to be typed:

Centered Uppercase and Lowercase Heading

    Indented, underlined, lowercase heading with a period.

CENTERED UPPERCASE HEADING

In papers with: (a) 2 levels of headings use levels 1 and 2; (b) 3 levels of heading use levels 1, 3, and 4; (c) 4 levels use 1, 2, 3, and 4; and (d) 5 levels use 5, 1, 2, 3, and 4. (Within a paragraph or sentence, identify elements in a series by lowercase letters in parentheses; APA, 1994, pp. 93-94).

In most cases, a level 1 heading can be used throughout your paper. Please note that this paper contains three levels of headings and therefore uses levels 1, 3, and 4. In general, follow the rules of making an outline. For example, if you are required to write a paper on depression the professor will more than likely want you to divide the paper using these headings: Overview of the topic, diagnostic criteria, treatment of the disorder, and personal commentary on the topic. Use a level 1 heading throughout your paper since each topic is of equal importance.

Example:

Summary of Depression in Adults

Diagnostic Criteria for Depression

Treatment of Depression in Adults

Personal Commentary on Depression

Citation of Sources in Text (Example of a Level 1 Heading)

The citation of sources is a key point in writing in APA style format. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (4th ed., 1994) states that "whether paraphrasing or quotingan author directly, you must credit the source. . . . For a direct quotation in the text, give the author, year, and page number in parentheses" (p. 97). If any material is left out use three ellipsis points (. . .) within the sentence, use four ellipsis points (. . . .) when material is left out betweentwo sentences. If inserting explanations in a direct quotation use brackets, not parenthesis. If any incorrect spelling, grammar, or punctuation in the source might confuse readers, insert the word sic, in brackets and underlined (i.e., [sic]), immediately after the error in the quotation (APA, 1994, pp. 95-96).

Examples (Example of a Level 3 Heading)

Quotation 1. (Example of a Level 4 Heading). The DSM IV defines the disorder [dysthymic] as being in a chronically depressed mood that occurs for "most of the day more days than not for at least two years (Criterion A). . . . In children, the mood may be irritable rather than depressed, and the required minimum duration is only one year" (APA, 1994, p. 345).

Quotation 2. Issac (1995) states that bipolar disorder "is not only uncommon but may be the most diagnostic entity in children and adolescents in similar settings. . . . and may be the most common diagnosis in adolescents who are court-remanded to such settings" (p.275).

With quotations of 40 or more words, DO NOT use quotation marks. Set off the quotation in Block style format (Start quote on new line indented five spaces. Each subsequent line is also indented; APA, 1994, pp. 95-96).

Quotation 3. Elkind (1978) states: In general, our findings support Piaget's view that perceptions as well as intelligence are neither entirely inborn nor entirely innate but are rather progressively constructed through the gradual development of perceptual regulations. The chapter has also attempted to demonstrate the applicability of Piaget's theory to practical issues by summarizing some research growing out of an analysis of beginning reading. (p. 183)

When paraphrasing someone else's material, you are required to cite it. For example, Smith (1996) found that test scores do not necessarily always correlate with IQ scores. If your paragraph is entirely taken from someone else's findings, thoughts, beliefs, etc., then at the end of the paragraph insert parenthesis containing the authors name and year; for example, (American Psychiatric Association, 1994). Make sure that anything referenced in your paper is cited on your Reference page and anything on your Reference page is used in your text (the reference page used in this paper is for example purposes only).

Note: This is a common mistake for many students and is a main reason why professors will LOWER your grade!

All citations in your text contain two parts: The author and year of publication. Always insert the year after the author the FIRST time it is used per paragraph, unless it can be confused with a different study, article, book. However, when a citation contains two or more authors use the following rules: (APA, 1994, pp.168-174).

Two authors. (Smith & Jones, 1994), or Smith and Jones (1994) found . . . . .In 1994 Smith and Jones researched....... Always cite both names in text.

Three, four, or five authors. Cite all the authors the first time the reference occurs. In subsequent citations use the first author's surname followed by "et al.". For example, Strasburger, Jorgensen, and Randles (1996) found differences........ (first time used). Strasburger et al. (1996) also created tests........... (first subsequent citation per paragraph). Starsburger et al. found discrepancies..... (further citations within SAME paragraph, omit year).

Six or more authors. Cite only the first surname and follow with "et al." Smith et al. (1996).

Groups as authors. First time cited spell out the group; for example, (National Institute of Mental Health [NIMH], 1996). Thereafter, use the abbreviation followed by the publication year. For example, The NIMH (1996) examined......

Citation of a work discussed in a secondary source.

Unlike in research terminology, with APA style primary source is the article, book, etc. that you have read and used to cite in your paper. In some cases you might wish use a citation from that work. This is called a secondary source.

You should always try to consult the original source. However, if you cannot, you should cite the source in the text, and refer to the sources you actually read. In the reference section, include only the source that you actually consulted.

For example, suppose you read a paper by Borst (1997), and in that paper he refers to a paper by Weisenmiller (1996). If you DID NOT actually read Weisenmiller (1996) yourself, then in the text, you might say: Weisenmiller (as cited in Borst, 1997) recommends working in the computer industry. In the reference section, you would include a reference for Borst (1997), but NOT for Weisenmiller (1996).

Works with no authors.

When a work has no author, cite in text the first few words of the reference list entry (usually the title) and the year. For example: In an investigation of depression in adults ("Study Finds", 1997) it was reported that…..

When a work's author is designated as "Anonymous," cite in text the word Anonymous followed by a comma and the date; for example, (Anonymous, 1997). In the reference list, an anonymous work is alphabetized by the word Anonymous (APA, 1994, pp. 171, 180).

Elements and Examples of References in APA Style

The Reference(s) page(s) begins on a new page. The references should be listed in alphabetical order. Consider author's names such as McAfee and Macwerner literally. Macwerner would come first. For two or more references with the same author, list first whichever one has the earliest publication year, and single author citations precede multiple author citations. If there is NO Author, the title moves to the author position, and the entry is alphabetized by the first significant word of the title (APA, 1994, p.180).

In instances where you have two or more references that contain the same author and year, differentiate them by placing a, b, c, d, etc. after the year. For example: National Institute of Mental Health. (1994a). Bipolar Disorder [Brochure]. Indianapolis, IN: Dista Products National Institute of Mental Health. (1994b). Depression [Brochure]. Indianapolis, IN: Dista Products. Then use the appropriate year and letter when citing in text.

All references should be double-spaced and indented. The following reference formats are given as examples, and DO NOT cover how to cite every type of reference. Consult your APA Manual for more information (APA, 1994, pp. 189-222).

Required Information: Author's surname and initials of first and middle name (if given). (Year of publication). Title of article. Publication information which includes: Journal title and volume number (underlined), the inclusive page numbers. Note: If , and only if, each issue of a journal begins on page 1, give the issue number in parentheses immediately after the volume number. If no publication date is available, write "n.d." in parenthesis. (p. 184).

Teri, L. (1982). Depression in adolescence: Its relationship to assertion and various aspects of self-image. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 11(2), 101-106.

Sonne, J. L., & Pope, K. S. (1991). Treating victims of therapist-patient involvement. Psychotherapy, 28, 174-187.

Borst, W. U. (1996). Guidelines for writing in APA style. Unpublished manuscript, Troy State University at Phenix City.

Bower, D. L. (1993). Employee assistant programs supervisory referrals: Characteristics of referring and nonreferring supervisors. Dissertation Abstracts International, 54 (01), 534.(University Microfilms No. AAD93-15947)

Information needed: Book authors or editors, date of publication, book title, publication information.

Elkind, D. (1978). The child's reality: Three developmental themes. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Marshall, F. J. (Ed.). (1996). Common ground. Atlanta: Make Believe Publications.

Duckworth, J. C., & Levitt, E. E. (1994). Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2. In D. J. Keyser & R. C. Sweetland (Eds.), Test critiques: Vol. 10 (pp. 424- 428). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author. Note: This is also an example of how to reference editions of books. When the publisher and author are the same, use "Author" for the publisher

Arie, M. (1996, October 8). Protecting yourself from evil E-mail. PC Magazine, 15, p. 192. Note: Use the exact date for weekly publications. Use the Month for monthly publications.

Simms, H. S. (1996). The title of the article goes here (Report No. NCRTL-XX-99-1). East Lansing, MI: National Center for Research on Teacher Learning. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 888 096)

Author, I. (date). Title of article [CD-ROM]. Title of Journal, xx, xx-xx. Abstract from: Source and retrieval information.

Sears, S. W. (1994, Winter). The first news blackout. <Civil War Chronicles>, pp. 16-23.(From <History 1994> [SIRS Researcher CD-ROM Spring 1996], Art. No. 35. Boca Raton, FL: SIRS, Inc. [Producer and Distributor].)

Personal communications may be memos, letters, lectures, seminars, interviews, telephone conversations, e-mail, and the like. These types of sources do not provide recoverable data and are NOT included in the reference list. Cite personal communications in TEXT only. Give the initials as well as the surname of the communicator, and provide as exact a date as possible: W. U. Borst (personal communication, April 7, 1997) said that these are not included in the reference list or (W. U. Borst, personal communication, April 7, 1997)

See APA, 1994, pp. 173-174 for more information.

Note: At the time of publication, the APA manual only gave suggestions on how to reference information off the Internet and other on-line sources. These are perfectly acceptable.

The following are examples that are becoming the standard in APA format.

Dewey, R. (1996). APA publication manual crib sheet. [On-Line]. Available:<http://www.GaSoU.edu/psychweb/tipsheet/apacrib.htm>

For Gopher or FTP data, insert gopher or ftp in place of the <http://www>. For a complete listing consult APA, 1994, pp. 189-222.

Miscellaneous

Avoid biased and pejorative language. Do not use 'men' to refer to all adults. Some commonly used acceptable references to populations: African Americans, Native Americans, sexual orientation (not sexual preference), people with depression and people with AIDS (not depressives or AIDS victims or sufferers), Asian Americans (not oriental),older persons (not elderly), lesbians and gay men (not homosexual; APA, 1994, pp. 46-60).

Type no more than 27 lines of text per page.

Avoid one-sentence paragraphs.

Avoid lengthy paragraphs. A paragraph should be no longer than one double-spaced page.

Professors sometimes require annotated bibliographies. These are nothing more than references containing brief and descriptive information concerning the references. Instead of typing 'References' at the top of your paper, use 'Annotated Bibliography'. This page or pages follow your reference page(s).

In general, use Scientific Journals for references (i.e., Journal of Counseling and Psychology, Journal of Educational Psychology, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Behavioral Neuroscience, Journal of the American Medical Association, etc.). In other words avoid using 'popular opinion' journals and magazines, or both (i.e., Time, Newsweek, USA Today, National Enquirer, Redbook, etc.).

Don't forget to use the sample paper in the Manual from pp. 258-272!

I want to express my appreciation to Prof. William Borst who has become a leading source of information and interpretation regarding APA style and format. This guide was originally:

Compiled by William U Borst

Troy State University- Phenix City, 1996-1999

(Revised 1/19/1999)

Contributing Editors:

Dr. Russell A. Dewey, Professor, Georgia Southern University. Dr. Victoria E. Rinehart, Associate Professor, SUNY Institute of Technology at Utica/Rome.

References

American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th. ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

American Psychological Association. (1994). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author. Dewey, R. (1996). APA publication manual crib sheet. [On-Line]. Available: <http://www.GaSoU.edu/psyweb/tipsheet/apacrib.htm>

Duckworth, J. C., & Levitt, E. E. (1994). Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2. In D. J. Keyser & R. C. Sweetland (Eds.), Test critiques: Vol. 10 (pp. 424- 428). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

Elkind, D. (1978). The child's reality: Three developmental themes. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Issac, G. (1995). Is bipolar disorder the most common diagnostic entity in hospitalized adolescents and children? Adolescents, 30(118), 273-276.

National Institute of Mental Health. (1994a). Bipolar disorder [Brochure]. Indianapolis, IN: Dista Products. National Institute of Mental Health. (1994b). Depression [Brochure]. Indianapolis, IN: Dista Products.

Where is my mutual fund. (n.d.). Springfield, MA: Sage Industry.